ÿþ<html> <head> <title>Dates of principal Biblical characters</title> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=windows-1255"> <SCRIPT language="JavaScript"> window.moveTo(0,0); window.resizeTo(screen.availWidth,screen.availHeight); function hideAds() { if(document.body.scrollTop<165) window.location.href="#top"; } </SCRIPT> </HEAD> <BODY LEFTMARGIN="10" TOPMARGIN="0" BGCOLOR="#FDF5E6" onLoad="hideAds();" onMouseOver="hideAds();" onMouseMove="hideAds();" onKeyUp="hideAds();"> <A NAME="top"><HR></A> <font size="4"> <p align="center"><i><b><font color=RED>Any advertisements appearing above this line are inserted by &quot;tripod&quot;, please IGNORE them</font></b></i></p> <p align="center"><b><font size="5">Dates of principal Biblical characters</font><br><font size="3"><i>by <a href="mailto:mordochai-ben-tziyyon@hotmail.com">Prof. Mordochai ben-Tziyyon</a>, Universitah Ha'ivrit, Y'rushalayim</i></font></b></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p>All Biblical dates given in this article are taken from my book <a href="http://mordochai.tripod.com/bibchron.pdf"><i>Shanah b'shanah bat'nach</i> (A Year-by-Year Chronology of the Hebrew Bible)</a> which gives a detailed explanation of how they are derived---the book is a very large Adobe&reg; Acrobat&reg; PDF file (more than 12Mb) and I recommend that you download it onto your hard drive by right-clicking the link and choosing &quot;Save File As...&quot;, rather than trying to open it directly by simply clicking the link.</p> <p>This article is in two parts. The first part comprises a summary of the dates of the principal characters occurring in the Bible according to the chronology of the historical record contained in the Scriptural narratives, and the second part is a comparison of the chronology derived from the Bible with the results obtained by secular historians, with particular attention to those individuals who are stated in the Bible to have been contemporaries.<br>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#beforethepatriarchs">Before the Patriarchs</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#thepatriarchs">The Patriarchs</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#mosesjoshuajudges"><i>Mosheh</i>, <i>Y'hoshua</i> &amp; the <i>Shoftim</i> (&quot;Judges&quot;)</a><br><a href="#sauldavidsolomon">The three kings of all <i>Yisraél</i></a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#twoparallelkingdoms">The two parallel kingdoms</a><br>&nbsp;<br><a href="#part2">Comparison with secular historical sources</a>&nbsp;---&nbsp;<a href="#egyptian">Egyptian</a>, <a href="#assyrian">Assyrian</a>, <a href="#babylonian">Babylonian</a>, <a href="#persian">Ach&aelig;menid (Persian)</a><br>&nbsp;<br><a href="#addendum-ester">Addendum 1: Who was &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; in the book of <i>Estér</i>?</a><br><a href="#addendum-daniel">Addendum 2: The problems raised by the book of <i>Daniyyél</i></a><p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <table align="center" cols="7"> <tr><td colspan="7" align="center"><a name="beforethepatriarchs"><font size="+2"><i>Before the Patriarchs</i></font></a></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Adam</i></td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>3924-2994<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td><i>Shem</i></td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>2366-1766<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Shet</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3794-2882<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Arpach'shad</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2266-1828<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Enosh</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3689-2784<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Shelah&#0803;</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2231-1798<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Keinan</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3599-2689<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>&Eacute;ver</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2201-1737<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Mahalal'él</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3529-2634<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Peleg</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2167-1928<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Yered</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3464-2502<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>R'u</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2137-1898<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>H&#0803;anoch</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3302-2937<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>S'rug</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2105-1875<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>M'tushelah&#0803;</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3237-2268<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Nah&#0803;or</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2075-1927<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Lemech</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>3050-2273<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Terah&#0803;</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2046-1841<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>No'ah&#0803;</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>2868-1918<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> </table> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <table align="center" cols="3"> <tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a name="thepatriarchs"><font size="+2"><i>The Patriarchs</i></font></a></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Avram/Avraham</i></td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>1976-1801<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Yitz'h&#0803;ak</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1876-1696<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Ya'akov/Yisraél</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1816-1669<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>R'uven</i>, 1st son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Léah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1731<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Shim'on</i>, 2nd son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Léah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1730<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>L&eacute;vi</i>, 3rd son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Léah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1729-1592<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Dan</i>, 1st son of son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Bilhah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1729<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Y'hudah</i>, 4th son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Léah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1728<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Naftali</i>, 2nd son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Bilhah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1728<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Yissachar</i>, 5th son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Léah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1727<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Gad</i>, 1st son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Zilpah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1727<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Z'vulun</i>, 6th son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Léah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1726<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Asher</i>, 2nd son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Zilpah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1726<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Dinah</i>, daughter of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Léah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1725<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Yoséf</i>, 1st son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Rah&#0803;él</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1725-1615<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Binyamin</i>, 2nd son of <i>Ya'akov</i> &amp; <i>Rah&#0803;él</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>b.</i>1717<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> </table> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <table align="center" cols="3"> <tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a name="mosesjoshuajudges"><font size="+2"><i>Mosheh</i>, <i>Y'hoshua</i> &amp; the <i>Shoftim</i> (&quot;Judges&quot;)</i></font></a></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Mosheh</i>, b. 1556<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>1476-1437<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Y'hoshua</i>, b. 1519<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1436-1409<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Otniyel ben K'naz</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1408-1369<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>&Eacute;hud ben G&eacute;ra</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1368-1289<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Shamgar ben Anat</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1288<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>D'vorah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1288-1249<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Midianite domination (no Yisr'élite ruler)</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1248-1242<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Gid'on ben Yo'ash</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1241-1202<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&quot;King&quot; <i>Avimelech ben Gid'on</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1201-1199<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Tola ben Pu'ah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1198-1176<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Ya'ir ha</i>-<i>Gil'adi</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1175-1154<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Philistine-Ammonite domination (no Yisr'élite ruler)</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1154-1137<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Yiftah&#0803; ben Gil'ad</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1137-1132<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Iv'tzan [Bo'az] mi-Beit Leh&#0803;em</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1132-1126<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Eilon ha</i>-<i>Z'vuloni</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1126-1117<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Avdon ben Hillel ha-Pir'atoni</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1117-1110<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Shimshon ben Mano'ah&#0803;</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1110-1091<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>&Eacute;li ha</i>-<i>Kohen</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1091-1052<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>Judge <i>Sh'muel ha</i>-<i>Ramati</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1052-1042<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> </table> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <table align="center" cols="3"> <tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><a name="sauldavidsolomon"><font size="+2">The three kings of all <i>Yisraél</i></font></a></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Sha'ul ben Kish</i></td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td>1042-1040<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>David ben Yishai</i>, b. 1070<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>1040-1001<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Shlomoh ben David</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">1000-961<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> </table> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <table align="center" cols="7"> <tr><td colspan="7" align="center"><a name="twoparallelkingdoms"><font size="+2"><i>The two parallel kingdoms</i></font></a></td></tr> <tr><th colspan="3">Southern Kingdom (<i>Y'hudah</i>)</th><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><th colspan="3">Northern Kingdom (<i>Yisraél</i>)</th></tr> <tr><td><i>R'h&#0803;av'am ben Sh'lomoh</i>, b. 1001<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>960-944<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Yarov'am</i> I <i>ben N'vat</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>960-939<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Aviyyam/Aviyyah ben R'h&#0803;av'am</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>943-941<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Asa ben Aviyyam/Aviyyah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>940-900<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Nadav ben Yarov'am</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>939-938<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Ba'asha ben Ah&#0803;iyyah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>938-915<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>&Eacute;lah ben Ba'asha</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>915-914<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Zimri</i>---reigned only 7 days</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">914<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Omri</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>914-903<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Ah&#0803;'av ben Omri</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>903-882<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Y'hoshafat ben Asa</i>, b. 934<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>899-875<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Ah&#0803;azyahu ben Ah&#0803;'av</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>882-881<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Y'horam ben Ah&#0803;'av</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>881-870<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Y'horam ben Y'hoshafat</i>, b. 909<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>877-870<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Ah&#0803;azyahu ben Y'horam</i>, b. 893<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">870<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&quot;Queen&quot;<i>Atalyah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>869-864<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Y&eacute;hu ben Y'hoshafat ben Nimshi</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>869-842<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Y'ho'ash ben Ah&#0803;azyahu</i>, b. 871<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>863-825<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Y'hoah&#0803;az ben Y&eacute;hu</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>842-826<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Y'hoash ben Y'hoah&#0803;az</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>825-812<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Amatz'yahu ben Y'hoash</i>, b. 849<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>824-796<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Yarov'am</i> II <i>ben Y'hoash</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>812-772<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Azar'yah/Uzziyahu ben Amatz'yahu</i>, b. 826<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>810-759<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Z'charyah ben Yarov'am</i> (II)</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>772-771<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Shallum ben Yavésh</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">771<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>M'nah&#0803;ém ben Gadi</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>770-761<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>P'kah&#0803;yah ben M'nah&#0803;ém</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>760-759<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Yotam ben Azar'yah/Uzziyahu</i>, b. 808<font size="-1">BCE</font><br>[Regent from 783<font size="-1">BCE</font>]</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>758-743<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Pekah&#0803; ben R'malyahu</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>758-739<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Ah&#0803;az ben Yotam</i>, b. 762<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>742-727<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td><i>Hosh&eacute;'a ben &Eacute;lah</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>738-721<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>H&#0803;izkiyyahu ben Ah&#0803;az</i>, b. 751<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>726-698<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>M'nasheh ben H&#0803;izkiyyahu</i>, b. 709<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>697-643<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Amon ben M'nasheh</i>, b. 664<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>642-641<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Yoshiyyahu ben Amon</i>, b. 648<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>640-610<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Y'ho'ah&#0803;az ben Yoshiyyahu</i>, b. 632<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">609<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Elyakim/Y'hoyakim ben Yoshiyyahu</i>, b. 633<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>608-598<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Y'hoyachin ben Elyakim/Y'hoyakim</i>, b. 616<font size="-1">BCE</font><br>(but 606<font size="-1">BCE</font> according to the Chronicler)</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">597<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> <tr><td><i>Mattanyah/Tzidkiyyahu ben Yoshiyyahu</i>,<br>b. 618<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>597-587<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> </table> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a name="part2"><font size="+2"><b>Comparison with secular historical sources</b></font></a><br><a href="#egyptian">Egyptian</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#assyrian">Assyrian</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#babylonian">Babylonian</a>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;|&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;<a href="#persian">Ach&aelig;menid (Persian)</a><br>&nbsp;<p> <p><a name="egyptian"><b>(1) Egyptian history</b></a></p> <p>The Exodus occurred in 1476<font size="-1">BCE</font>, at which time <i>Mosheh</i> was 80 years old (<i>Sh'mot</i> 7:7); he was therefore born in 1556<font size="-1">BCE</font>. The narrative in <i>Sh'mot</i> doesn't name the Pharaoh who was reigning at that time or his daughter who found the Hebrew infant hidden among the reeds that grew along the banks of the Nile, adopted him and named him <i>Mosheh</i>, although it appears from <i>Divrei Hayamim Alef</i> 4:18 that her name was <i>Bit'yah</i>, and that she later joined the escaping Hebrews and married a guy named <i>Mered</i>, who was related to <i>Kalév</i> &quot;<i>ben Y'funneh</i>&quot; (&quot;the Turner&quot;, so-called because he &quot;turned away&quot; from the advice of the Ten Spies) <i>ben H&#0803;etzron</i>.</p> <p>It is a common mistake to think that the <i>same</i> &quot;Pharaoh&quot; is being referred to all the way through <i>Sh'mot</i>; this cannot be the case, however, because (as just mentioned) <i>Mosheh</i> was 80 years old when he first appeared before the &quot;Exodus&quot; Pharaoh (<i>Sh'mot</i> 7:7), and none of the Pharaohs in that period of Egyptian history is known to have reigned as long as this. In any case, it is stated explicitly in <i>Sh'mot</i> 2:23 that <i>&quot;many years passed <b><u>and then the king of Egypt died</u></b>&quot;</i>. Thus, the &quot;Pharaoh&quot; who was reigning at the time of the Exodus couldn't have been the same as the one at the time of <i>Mosheh</i>'s birth who ordered that all the male Hebrew babies were to be drowned in the Nile.</p> <p>The names of the Pharaohs who were reigning during the time of <i>Mosheh</i> (1556-1437<font size="-1">BCE</font>), and the <i>lengths</i> of their reigns, are known with considerable certainty, but their actual <i>dates</i> can only be established within about ten years either way. Thus, although it can be stated with confidence that <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ahmose1.htm" target="_blank">Neb-pehty-ra Ah-mosheh I</a>, the founder of the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn18a.htm" target="_blank">18th dynasty</a>, reigned for 25 years (conventionally given as 1550-1525<font size="-1">BCE</font>), we do not know the <i>exact</i> dates and the best that the Egyptologists can tell us is that his reign could have begun as early as 1560<font size="-1">BCE</font>, and have ended as late as 1515<font size="-1">BCE</font>.</p> By sheer &quot;coincidence&quot;, the period of Egyptian history that starts with the reign of <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ahmose1.htm" target="_blank">Neb-pehty-ra Ah-mosheh I</a> at the beginning of the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn18a.htm" target="_blank">18th dynasty</a> is called the <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/hdyn18a.htm" target="_blank"><i>New Kingdom</i></a> by Egyptologists, and it is interesting to speculate whether the <i>Torah</i> is alluding to this when it records that <i>a new king[dom] arose over Egypt</i> (<i>Sh'mot</i> 1:8).</p> <p>The Biblical narrative describes how a Hebrew infant was found and adopted by the Pharaoh's daughter, who gave him the name <i>Mosheh</i>. The ancient Egyptian word <i>mosheh</i> means &quot;born of...&quot; (i.e. son of) and thus <i>Ah</i>-<i>mosheh</i> means son of <i>Ah</i> (the moon-god). [In fact, the earliest occurrences in heiroglyphic writings of the name <i>Ah</i>---sometimes spelt <i>Lah</i>, <i>Yah</i> or <i>Ya'eh</i>---seem to refer to the physical moon rather than to a deity, and the resemblence between <i>Ya'eh</i> and the Hebrew word <i>yar&eacute;'ah&#0803;</i> (the moon) is striking.] It isn't at all surprising that an Egyptian princess should name her adopted son after her own father, the reigning Pharaoh. What <i>is</i> surprising is that an Egyptian princess should exclaim <u><b><i>in Hebrew</i></b></u> &quot;I pulled him out of the water!&quot; (<i>min hamayim mishitihu</i>) and derive a name for her adopted son from that remark, or that she should even have spoken Hebrew at all; it seems much more likely that she made this remark years later, after she had become a Yisr'élite (see above).</p> <p><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ahmose1.htm" target="_blank">Neb-pehty-ra Ah-mosheh I</a> died <i>ca.</i>1525<font size="-1">BCE</font> and was succeeded by his son <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/18dyn02.htm" target="_blank">Djeser-ka-ra Amun-hotep I</a>, who reigned until his death in about 1504<font size="-1">BCE</font>; he was succeeded by his brother-in-law, <a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/tuthmosis1.htm" target="_blank">Aa-kheper-ka-ra Thoth-mosheh I</a>, who reigned until <i>ca.</i>1492<font size="-1">BCE</font>, and he was succeeded by his son <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tuthmosis2.htm" target="_blank">Aa-kheper-en-ra Thoth-mosheh II</a> who reigned until <i>ca.</i>1479<font size="-1">BCE</font>. Thoth-mosheh II's principal wife was his half-sister <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/18dyn05.htm" target="_blank">Ma-at-ka-ra Hat-shep-sut</a>, but they do not seem to have had any children and, at the time of his death in <i>ca.</i>1479<font size="-1">BCE</font>, his only heir seems to have been the son of a concubine, <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tuthmosis3.htm" target="_blank">Men-kheper-ra Thoth-mosheh III</a>, who was still a child.</p> <p>Queen Hat-shep-sut dominated Thoth-mosheh III for nearly half of his long reign (he reigned for over 50 years in all). Initially acting as regent, in 1473<font size="-1">BCE</font> she declared herself Pharaoh and ruled alone for 16 years. But in 1457<font size="-1">BCE</font>, Thoth-mosheh III succeeded in seizing back the throne and after this Hat-shep-sut disappears from the heiroglyphic record; her monuments were defaced and an apparent attempt to erase her memory was carried out. Her fate remains unknown: she may just have been deposed and exiled, but it is more likely that she was executed (if she was not killed during the 1457<font size="-1">BCE</font> coup).</p> <p>Let us summarise the dates of these Pharaohs of the early part of the 18th dynasty, taking account of the &plusmn;10 year uncertainty in the conventional dating:</p> <table align="center" cols="5" cellpadding="8" cellspacing="0" border="1"> <tr><th>Pharaoh</th><th>length of reign</th><th>conventional<br>dates</th><th>reign could have<br>started as early as</th><th>reign could have<br>ended as late as</th></tr> <tr align="center"><td><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ahmose1.htm" target="_blank">Neb-pehty-ra Ah-mosheh I</a></td><td>25 years</td><td>1550-1525<font size="-1">BCE</font><td>1560<font size="-1">BCE</font><td>1515<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><tr> <tr align="center"><td><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/18dyn02.htm" target="_blank">Djeser-ka-ra Amun-hotep I</a></td><td>21 years</td><td>1525-1504<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1535<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1494<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><tr> <tr align="center"><td><a href="http://touregypt.net/featurestories/tuthmosis1.htm" target="_blank">Aa-kheper-ka-ra Thoth-mosheh I</a></td><td>12 years</td><td>1504-1492<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1514<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1482<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><tr> <tr align="center"><td><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tuthmosis2.htm" target="_blank">Aa-kheper-en-ra Thoth-mosheh II</a></td><td>13 years</td><td>1492-1479<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1502<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1469<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><tr> <tr align="center"><td><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/18dyn05.htm" target="_blank">Ma-at-ka-ra Hat-shep-sut</a></td><td>22 years</td><td>1479-1457<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1489<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1447<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><tr> <tr align="center"><td><a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/tuthmosis3.htm" target="_blank">Men-kheper-ra Thoth-mosheh III</a></td><td>54 years</td><td>1479-1425<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1489<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><td>1415<font size="-1">BCE</font></td><tr> </table> <p>We therefore have two possible candidates for the Pharaoh of the <i>Exodus</i> narrative: Aa-kheper-en-ra Thoth-Mosheh II, and Ma-at-ka-ra Hat-shep-sut (Men-kheper-ra Thoth-mosheh III, although technically a third possibility, would still have been a child at the time in question and Hat-shep-sut would either still have been acting as regent, or would already have usurped the throne and declared herself Pharaoh).</p> <p>So could the Pharaoh of the <i>Exodus</i> narrative have been a woman? There is nothing in the text that would excludes this possibility, and yet it is always automatically assumed that it must have been a man (even by those who have heard of Queen Hat-shep-sut, although admittedly most people haven't). The Pharaoh portrayed in the <i>Exodus</i> narrative was capricious and kept changing his mind, a trait more characteristic of women than of men, and furthermore I was always perturbed by the threat made to &quot;him&quot; by God in <i>Sh'mot</i> 7:26-28 until I discovered the intriguing possibility that the <i>Exodus</i> &quot;Pharaoh&quot; might have been a woman---</p> <table width="90%" align="center" cols="1"> <tr><td><i>Adonai</i> said to <i>Mosheh</i>, &quot;Go to the Pharaoh and tell him: 'This is what <i>Adonai</i> says---Release My people, so that they can serve Me! And if you persist in refusing to release them, I am going to infest the whole of your country with frogs... the Nile will swarm with frogs: they will emerge [from the river], enter your house and come into your bedroom---<i>even onto your bed</i>!'...&quot;</td></tr> </table> <p>Speaking as a man, I have never found the prospect of waking up to find frogs hopping about on my bed particularly alarming: not pleasant, to be sure, but not bad enough to cause me to dissolve into hysterics. Was this supposed to terrify the Pharaoh into submission? Most men would laugh at a threat like that. But, equally, most women would not: such a threat is far more likely to be effective against a woman than against a man.</p> <p>Moving on, <i>Yarov'am ben N'vat</i> is reported to have sought the protection of &quot;<i>Shishak, king of Egypt</i>&quot; during Sh'lomoh</i> s reign (<i>M'lachim Alef</i> 11:40), and this same &quot;<i>Shishak</i>&quot; is also said to have attacked <i>Sh'lomoh</i> s son, <i>R'h&#0803;av'am</i>, in the 5th year of the latter's reign (<i>M'lachim Alef</i> 14:25, <i>Divrei Hayamim Beit</i> 12:2), i.e. 956<font size="-1">BCE</font>. This was Hedj-kheper-ra Sheshonq I, the first Pharaoh of the 22nd dynasty, whose dates are only known approximately; Egyptologists give the start of his reign conventionally as &quot;about 945<font size="-1">BCE</font>&quot;, but he seems to have been already in power at more than 15 years before that, because <i>Sh'lomoh</i> died in 961<font size="-1">BCE</font>.<p> <p><a name="siegeofsamaria">Another</a> Pharaoh crops up in the Biblical narrative at the time of the final overthrow of Samaria. The text states that</p> <table width="90%" align="center" cols="1"> <tr><td>the Assyrian king discovered that <i>Hoshé'a</i> had betrayed him and was sending messages to the Egyptian king So, and was not paying his annual tribute as he had in previous years; the Assyrian king therefore arrested him and threw him into prison, invaded the whole country and laid siege to Samaria for three years... (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 18:4-5)</td></tr> </table> <p>According to <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 18:9-11, the siege lasted from <i>H&#0803;izkiyyahu</i> 's 4th and <i>Hoshé'a</i> 's 7th year (723<font size="-1">BCE</font>) until <i>H&#0803;izkiyyahu</i> 's 6th and <i>Hoshé'a</i> 's 9th year (721<font size="-1">BCE</font>), when Samaria fell and the Northern Kingdom came to an end. &quot;So&quot; was <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/22dyn10.htm" target="_blank">Aa-kheper-ra Set-ep-en-amun O-sor-kon IV</a>, an obscure Pharaoh of the 22nd dynasty, who reigned <i>ca.</i>735-712<font size="-1">BCE</font>. Osorkon sent no aid to <i>Hoshé'a</i> ; he had his own problems with the Assyrians, and only managed to avoid being attacked himself by sending a very large bribe to the Assyrian king, Sargon II.</p> <p>One more Pharaoh is mentioned in the historical narrative of the Bible. The book of <i>M'lachim</i> records that---</p> <table width="90%" align="center" cols="1"> <tr><td>In [<i>Yoshiyyahu</i>'s] time, the Egyptian king, Pharaoh <i>N'cho</i>, was marching against the Assyrian king [who lived] by the River Euphrates. King <i>Yoshiyyahu</i> went to confront him, but [<i>N'cho</i>] killed him at <i>M'giddo</i> where he confronted him... (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 23:29)</td></tr> </table> <p>and the Chronicler elaborates---</p> <table width="90%" align="center" cols="1"> <tr><td>After all this, when <i>Yoshiyyahu</i> had finished renovating the Temple, the Egyptian king <i>N'cho</i> was marching to make war on <i>Kark'mish</i> by the [River] Euphrates, and <i>Yoshiyyahu</i> marched out to confront him. [<i>N'cho</i>] sent ambassadors to [<i>Yoshiyyahu</i>] to say: &quot;I have no quarrel with you, King of <i>Y'hudah</i>... I am not attacking you, but I need to proceed to the location of my own war. God has told me to hurry, so don't oppose the God who is with me, or you will be destroyed!&quot; But <i>Yoshiyyahu</i> refused to back down, because he was determined to fight: he took no notice of <i>N'cho</i>'s words, [which were] from God. The battle was joined in the Megiddo Valley; and the archers shot at King <i>Yoshiyyahu</i>. The king said to his servants &quot;Get me out of here, I am badly wounded!&quot; So his servants took him from his battle-chariot and drove him to <i>Y'rushalayim</i> in a second carriage that he had... he died and was buried in his fathers' tombs... all of <i>Y'hudah</i> and <i>Y'rushalayim</i> mourned for <i>Yoshiyyahu</i>. (<i>Divrei Hayamim Beit</i> 35:20-24)</td></tr> </table> <p>Pharaoh &quot;<i>N'cho</i>&quot; was <a href="http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/necho2.htm" target="_blank">Wehem-ib-ra Nekau II</a>, the second Pharaoh of the 26th dynasty, who reigned <i>ca.</i>610-595<font size="-1">BCE</font>; his battle against <i>Yoshiyyahu</i> (who died in 610<font size="-1">BCE</font>) was therefore right at the start of his reign. It appears that <i>Yoshiyyahu</i>'s successor, his son <i>Y'hoah&#0803;az</i> (who had been the people's choice in preference to the older brother <i>Elyakim</i>), did not meet with Nekau's approval because, after only three months, Nekau invaded <i>Y'hudah</i> and deposed <i>Y'hoah&#0803;az</i>, replacing him with his brother, who reigned for the next 11 years as King <i>Y'hoyakim</i> (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 23:30-36, <i>Divrei Hayamim Beit</i> 36:1-5).</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><a name="assyrian"><b>(2) Assyrian history</b></a></p> <p>Assyria (<i>Ashur</i>) was a major force in the ancient world of the 9th century <font size="-1">BCE</font>, particularly under <i>Ashur</i>-<i>nasir</i>-<i>apli</i> (&quot;the god <i>Ashur</i> is the protector of the heir&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC417" target="_blank">Ashur-n&acirc;sir-pal II</a> (reigned 883-859<font size="-1">BCE</font>) and his son <i>Shulmanu</i>-<i>ashared</i> (&quot;the god <i>Shulmanu</i> is foremost&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC418" target="_blank">Shalmaneser III</a> (reigned 858-824<font size="-1">BCE</font>). Towards the end of his reign a revolt broke out and several years of civil war ensued, and Assyria's power then declined and it fell into obscurity.</p> <p>In the middle of the 8th century <font size="-1">BCE</font>, though, under <i>Tukulti</i>-<i>apil</i>-<i>esharra</i> (&quot;my trust is the son of the god <i>Esharra</i>&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC419" target="_blank">Tiglath-pileser III</a> (reigned 744-727<font size="-1">BCE</font>), Assyria's fortunes revived and it once again rose to prominence. After Tiglath-pileser III's death in 727<font size="-1">BCE</font>, he was succeeded by his son <i>Shulmanu</i>-<i>ashared</i> (&quot;the god <i>Shulmanu</i> is foremost&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ4601" target="_blank">Shalmaneser V</a> whose brief reign (727-722<font size="-1">BCE</font>) ended abruptly when his half-brother <i>Sharru</i>-<i>Kenu</i> (&quot;legitimate king&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC420" target="_blank">Sargon II</a> (721-705<font size="-1">BCE</font>), another son of Tiglath-pileser III, seized power in a violent coup.</p> <p>Sargon was killed in battle in Anatolia and was succeeded by his son <i>Sin</i>-<i>ahhe</i>-<i>criba</i> (&quot;the god <i>Sin</i> has replaced the brothers&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC421" target="_blank">Sennacherib</a> (reigned 704-681<font size="-1">BCE</font>). It was Sennacherib who transferred the Assyrian capital to <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC382" target="_blank">Nineveh</a> (see <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 19:36 and <i>Y'shayahu</i> 37:37). The <a name="murderofsennacherib">murder of Sennacherib</a> is well documented in Assyrian sources as well as in the Bible (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 19:37, <i>Y'shayahu</i> 37:38) and, in his 1980 paper <a href="http://www.gatewaystobabylon.com/introduction/murderersennacherib.htm" target="_blank"><i>The murderer of Sennacherib</i></a> (published in Copenhagen Studies in Assyriology (Mesopotamia): &quot;Death in Mesopotamia&quot;, Papers read at the XXVIeme Rencontre assyriologique internationale, edited by Bendt Alster, Akademisk Forlag, Dr Simo Parpola (University of Chicago) established the likely identity of the murderer. Sennacherib was succeeded by his son <i>Ashur</i>-<i>ahu</i>-<i>iddina</i> (&quot;the god <i>Ashur</i> has given a brother&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC422" target="_blank">Esarhaddon</a> (reigned 680-669<font size="-1">BCE</font>).</p> <p>Every one of the kings just named other than Ashur-n&acirc;sir-pal II had dealings with one or other of the two Hebrew kingdoms to their west:</p> <ul> <li>a two-metre high <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ1503" target="_blank">black limestone obelisk</a> (in the British Museum, London) found in 1846 and dating from the year 825<font size="-1">BCE</font> depicts <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC418" target="_blank">Shalmaneser III</a> (858-824<font size="-1">BCE</font>) receiving tributes from five foreign kings, one of whom, according to the inscription, was &quot;Jehu of the House of Omri&quot;. In fact, Jehu (869-842<font size="-1">BCE</font>) was not a member of Omri's dynasty and was actually responsible for bringing it to an end. There is also no Biblical record of him ever paying tribute to the king of Assyria---but he was certainly a contemporary of Shalmaneser III.<br>&nbsp;</li> <li>Ahaz (742-727<font size="-1">BCE</font>) bribed <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC419" target="_blank">Tiglath-pileser III</a> (744-727<font size="-1">BCE</font>) to come to his aid against the alliance of the northern Hebrew king Pekah and the Aramean (Syrian) king R'tzin (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 16:7-8, <i>Divrei Hayamim Beit</i> 28:16). The Assyrian king obliged and attacked Pekah and R'tzin, but after that he betrayed Ahaz by attacking him too (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 16:9-10, <i>Divrei Hayamim Beit</i> 28:20-21).<br>&nbsp;</li> <li><i>Hoshé'a</i> (738-721<font size="-1">BCE</font>) was subjugated by an Assyrian king who is not named in the Biblical narrative, although it must have been <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC419" target="_blank">Tiglath-pileser III</a>, and was forced to pay him tribute from the beginning of his reign in 738<font size="-1">BCE</font> until about 730<font size="-1">BCE</font> (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 17:1-3), after which he rebelled and stopped paying his tribute, and also appealed to the Egyptian king Osorkon IV for help. Upon discovering <i>Hoshé'a</i> 's rebellion, Shalmaneser V (727-722<font size="-1">BCE</font>) marched on Samaria to deal with the recalcitrant Israelite king... as mentioned <a href="#siegeofsamaria">above</a>, the siege of Samaria lasted from <i>H&#0803;izkiyyahu</i> 's 4th and <i>Hoshé'a</i> 's 7th year (723<font size="-1">BCE</font>) until <i>H&#0803;izkiyyahu</i> 's 6th and <i>Hoshé'a</i> 's 9th year (721<font size="-1">BCE</font>), when Samaria fell and the northern Israelite kingdom came to an end... by this time, Shalmaneser V had already been overthrown (and presumably killed) in the violent coup that brought his half-brother <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC420" target="_blank">Sargon II</a> to power.<br>&nbsp;</li> <li>In 713<font size="-1">BCE</font>, <i>H&#0803;izkiyyahu</i> (726-698<font size="-1">BCE</font>) was attacked by the armies of <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC420" target="_blank">Sargon II</a> (721-705<font size="-1">BCE</font>), commanded by the king's son, Crown Prince <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC421" target="_blank">Sennacherib</a> (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 18:13ff)... the account in the book of <i>M'lachim</i> doesn't actually mention Sargon, but <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 18:17 refers to a military commander named <i>Tartan</i> who is stated elsewhere to have been Sargon's general (<i>Y'shayahu</i> 20:1).<br>&nbsp;</li> <li>The Biblical narrative does not record any contact between Israel and <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC422" target="_blank">Esarhaddon</a> (680-669<font size="-1">BCE</font>), but the latter's succession to the Assyrian throne following his father's murder (see <a href="#murderofsennacherib">above</a>) is documented in <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 19:36 and <i>Y'shayahu</i> 37:38.</li> </ul> <p>Assyria had reached the height of its power under <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC421" target="_blank">Sennacherib</a> (704-681<font size="-1">BCE</font>), who even succeeded in capturing and sacking <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC378" target="_blank">Babylon</a> in about 689<font size="-1">BCE</font>. This dominance continued under <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC422" target="_blank">Esarhaddon</a> (680-669<font size="-1">BCE</font>) and his son <i>Ashur</i>-<i>bani</i>-<i>apli</i> (&quot;the god <i>Ashur</i> is the creator of the heir&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC423" target="_blank">Ashurbanipal</a> (668-627<font size="-1">BCE</font>), but declined rapidly after Ashurbanipal's death in 627<font size="-1">BCE</font>. Coincidentally, at exactly that time, <i>Nabu</i>-<i>apla</i>-<i>utzur</i> or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC404" target="_blank">Nabopolassar</a>, a Chald&aelig;an of unknown background, seized power in Babylonia (626<font size="-1">BCE</font>).</p> <p>The new Babylonian king fought for control, and within 10 years was in a position to mount attacks against the Assyrian territories to the west and north. In 612<font size="-1">BCE</font>, with the assistance of the Persian Medes with whom he was allied, Nabopolassar was able to overrun many of the most important cities of the Assyrian empire, including the capital Nineveh. After the fall of Nineveh, Assyria disappears completely from the history of ancient Mesopotamia.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><a name="babylonian"><b>(3) Babylonian history</b></a></p> <p>The first Babylonian king who is mentioned in the Scriptures is <i>Marduk</i>-<i>apla</i>-<i>iddina</i>, or Merodach-baladan II (722-710<font size="-1">BCE</font>). Information about this king is sketchy and somewhat confused. He seems to have rebelled against Assyrian domination after the accession of Sargon (721<font size="-1">BCE</font>), and Sargon did not succeed in subduing him until 709<font size="-1">BCE</font> when he fled to Elam, only to return to <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC378" target="_blank">Babylon</a> and seize power again in 703<font size="-1">BCE</font> after Sargon had been killed and his son Sennacherib had succeeded to the throne. Sennacherib was able to overcome Merodach-baladan very quickly, but Babylonian resistance to Assyrian rule seems to have continued for some years. Little else is known about him.</p> <p>Merodach-baladan is mentioned as a contemporary of <i>H&#0803;izkiyyahu</i> (reigned 726-698<font size="-1">BCE</font>) in <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 20:12 and <i>Y'shayahu</i> 39:1; the reference in <i>Y'shayahu</i> calls him &quot;<i>M'rodach Baladan</i> son of <i>Baladan</i>&quot; and the <i>M'lachim</i> author calls him &quot;<i><b>B</b>'rodach Baladan</i> son of <i>Baladan</i>&quot;.</p> <p>As I mentioned at the end of the section on Assyrian history, the Chald&aelig;an <i>Nabu</i>-<i>apla</i>-<i>utzur</i> (&quot;Nabopolassar&quot;) took advantage of the confusion that followed Ashurbanipal's death in 627<font size="-1">BCE</font> to seize power in <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC378" target="_blank">Babylon</a>. Much of his reign is documented in the so-called &quot;Babylonian Chronicle&quot; tablet <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ4554" target="_blank">BM21901</a> in the British Museum, London, which covers the period 616-609<font size="-1">BCE</font>; the Babylonian record continues in tablet <a href="bm21946.html" target="_blank">BM21946</a>, which covers the years 605-594<font size="-1">BCE</font>.</p> <p>Nabopolassar reigned for 21 years (626-605<font size="-1">BCE</font>). According to the &quot;Babylonian Chronicle&quot; tablet <a href="bm21946.html" target="_blank">BM21946</a>, he died on 8th <i>Abu</i> (approx. 15th Aug.), 605<font size="-1">BCE</font> and was immediately succeeded by his son <i>Nabu</i></i>-<i>kudurri</i>-<i>utzur</i> (&quot;O <i>Nabu</i>, protect the son&quot;) or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC111105" target="_blank">Nebuchadnezzar II</a> who returned to <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC378" target="_blank">Babylon</a> from Hamath where he was fighting the Egyptians and was crowned on 1st <i>Ul&ucirc;lu</i> (approx. 7th Sept.), 605<font size="-1">BCE</font>.</p> <p>According to Ptolemy's &kappa;&alpha;&nu;&omega;&nu; &beta;&alpha;&sigma;&iota;&lambda;&epsilon;&omega;&nu; (<i>kanon basileon</i>, or &quot;Canon of the Kings&quot;), Nebuchadnezzar II reigned for 43 years (not counting the period from his accession in the summer of 605<font size="-1">BCE</font> to the beginning of his &quot;1st year&quot; in the spring of 604<font size="-1">BCE</font>, i.e. his &quot;accession year&quot;), and was succeeded by his son <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC404" target="_blank"><i>Amel</i>-<i>Marduk</i></a> (the Biblical &quot;<i>Evil-M'rodach</i>&quot;, <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:27 &amp; <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:31). <i>Amel</i>-<i>Marduk</i> reigned for two years (561-559<font size="-1">BCE</font>) and was then murdered by his brother-in-law (Nebuchadnezzar's son-in-law) <i>Nergal</i>-<i>sharra</i>-<i>utzur</i> (&quot;Neriglissar&quot;), who reigned for four years (559-556<font size="-1">BCE</font>); he died and was succeeded by his son <i>Labashi</i>-<i>Marduk</i>, who only lasted for a few months before he was deposed and and <i>Nabu</i>-<i>na'id</i> or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ4597" target="_blank">Nabonidus</a> came to power.</p> <p>Tablet <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ4563" target="_blank">BM35382</a>, which chronicles Nabonidus's 17-year reign (556-539<font size="-1">BCE</font>), records that he was absent from <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC378" target="_blank">Babylon</a> campaigning in Arabia for much of it, leaving his son <i>Bel</i>-<i>sharra</i>-<i>utzur</i>, the Biblical &quot;Belshazzar&quot;, reigning as regent in his absence.</p> <p>Meanwhile <i>K&ucirc;rush</i>, or <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC111526" target="_blank">Cyrus</a>, had taken control of the whole of Persia. <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ4383" target="_blank">Croesus</a>, the king of <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ4379" target="_blank">Lydia</a>, felt threatened by the expanding Persian empire and his forces clashed with the Persian army in 547<font size="-1">BCE</font>. The battle was undecisive but the Persians pursued Croesus back to the Lydian capital, Sardis, which fell after a two-week siege. The Babylonians were allied with Lydia and the Persian and Babylonian armies eventually met at Opis, east of the Tigris, in the autumn of 539<font size="-1">BCE</font>. Cyrus was victorious: Opis fell, its inhabitants were massacred, and Nabonidus was captured; neighbouring <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC383" target="_blank">Sippar</a> and <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC378" target="_blank">Babylon</a> surrendered without offering any resistance, and the Persian king entered Babylon to take control.</p> <p>Nabopolassar ia not mentioned in the Bible at all, but his son Nebuchadnezzar more than makes up for his father's absence from the Biblical narrative. His name is variously spelt as <font size="+2">à°ÑÕ¼Û·Ó°à¶æ¼·è</font> <i>N'vu</i>-<i>chad'n</i>-<i>etzar</i> and as <font size="+2">à°ÑÕ¼Û·Ó°è¶Ðæ¼·è</font> <i>N'vu</i>-<i>chad'r</i>-<i>etzar</i>, the latter form being very close to that Babylonian <i>Nabu</i>-<i>kudurri</i>-<i>utzur</i>.</p> <p>Nebuchadnezzar II's reign can be dated precisely with no room for doubt by means of an astronomical observations diary tablet, catalogue no. <a href="vat4956.html" target="_blank">VAT4956</a>, which is in the collection of the Vorderasiatisches Museum in East Berlin.</p> <p><i>Yirm'yahu</i> 25:1 records that Nebuchadnezzar's 1st year coincided with <i>Y'hoyakim</i>'s 4th (605<font size="-1">BCE</font>) and <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 46:2 places the battle of <i>Kark'mish</i>, in which Nebuchadnezzar routed the Egyptians, in the same year---which is in precise agreement with Babylonian Chronicle tablet <a href="bm21946.html" target="_blank">BM21946</a>.</p> <p>According to the Biblical narrative accounts, Nebuchadnezzar attacked <i>Y'rushalayim</i> <i>twice</i>. The first attack occurred in Nebuchadnezzar's 7th year (or his 8th if his &quot;accession year&quot; is included), i.e. 597<font size="-1">BCE</font>. On this occasion, he merely deposed the young king <i>Y'hoyachin</i> and placed his uncle <i>Mattanyah</i> on the throne of <i>Y'hudah</i> as King <i>Tzid'kiyyahu</i>---this is documented in <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 24:12, where it is clearly stated to have taken place in Nebuchadnezzar's <b><i>eighth</i></b> year. However in <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:28, where the number of <i>Y'hudim</i> deported at the same time is reported, the date is given as Nebuchadnezzar's <b><i>seventh</i></b> year, following the Babylonian system.</p> <p><a href="bm21946.html" target="_blank">BM21946</a>'s account of Nebuchadnezzar's first attack on <i>Y'rushalayim</i> also places it in his 7th year. It occupies lines 11-13 on the reverse of the tablet and reads as follows---the translation is taken from <a href="http://www.eisenbrauns.com/wconnect/wc.dll?ebGate~EIS~~I~GRAASSYR" target="_blank"><i>Assyrian &amp; Babylonian Chronicles</i></a> by A. K. Grayson, published by <a href="https://www.eisenbrauns.com" target="_blank">Eisenbrauns</a>, 2000), page 102:<br> <table width="90%" align="center"> <tr><td>The seventh year: In the month Kislev the king of Akkad mustered his army and marched to Hattu. He encamped against the city of Judah and on the second day of the month Adar he captured the city (and) seized (its) king. A king of his own choice he appointed in the city (and) taking the vast tribute he brought it into Babylon.</td></tr> </table></p> <p>The Biblical account in <i>M'lachim</i> parallels this remarkably closely:<br> <table width="90%" align="center"> <tr><td>...at that time, Nebuchadnezzar's servants had attacked <i>Y'rushalayim</i> and the city was under siege; then Nebuchadnezzar himself came upon the city, while his servants were besieging it, and King <i>Y'hoyachin</i> of <i>Y'hudah</i> surrendered to the king of Babylonia, together with his mother, his servants, his ministers-of-state and his officials: the king of Babylonia arrested him in his eighth year. [Nebuchadnezzar] plundered all the treasuries of <i>Adonai</i>'s Temple and the treasuries of the king's palace, and also stripped off all the golden ornaments that King <i>Sh'lomoh</i> of <i>Yisraél</i> had decorated <i>Adonai</i>'s Sanctuary with, as <i>Adonai</i> had instructed him... the king of Babylonia placed [<i>Y'hoyachin</i>'s] uncle <i>Mattanyah</i> on the throne in his place, changing his name to <i>Tzid'kiyyahu</i>... (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 24:10-17)</td></tr> </table> </p> <p><i>Y'hoyachin</i>'s dethronement and arrest get a much terser treatment in the <i>Chronicle</i>---<br> <table width="90%" align="center"> <tr><td>...at the turn of the year, Nebuchadnezzar sent and brought him to Babylonia, together with the most precious utensils of <i>Adonai</i>'s House, and appointed his [father's] brother <i>Tzid'kiyyahu</i> king over <i>Y'hudah</i> and <i>Y'rushalayim</i>. (<i>Divrei Hayamim Beit</i> 36:10)</td></tr> </table> </p> <p>Note that even the <i>date</i> given by <a href="bm21946.html" target="_blank">BM21946</a> for <i>Y'hoyachin</i>'s arrest agrees with the Biblical narrative, because <i>Adar</i> is the 12th (i.e. last) month of the year, so Nebuchadnezzar did indeed seize Jehoiachin <font size="+2">Ü´ê°éÁռѷê Ô·é¼Á¸à¸Ô</font> <i>lit'shuvat hashanah</i>, &quot;at the end of the [regnal] year&quot;, just as <i>Divrei Hayamim Beit</i> 36:10 records.</p> <p>The second attack on <i>Y'rushalayim</i> is documented in <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25 and <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52. <i>Y'rushalayim</i> was under siege from the winter of <i>Tzid'kiyyahu</i>'s 9th year (589<font size="-1">BCE</font>) until the summer of his 11th year (587<font size="-1">BCE</font>), a period of some eighteen months. The city walls were then breached and the city fell; the defending soldiers deserted and fled for their lives, and <i>Tzid'kiyyahu</i> himself also managed to escape, although he was pursued by the Babylonian troops and captured (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:1-7, <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:4-11). The prophet <i>Yirm'yahu</i> laments the king's capture in the fourth of his five mournful poems on the destruction of <i>Y'rushalayim</i>: <i>&quot;Our life-breath, <i>Adonai</i>'s messiah, was captured in their traps...&quot;</i> (<i>Eichah</i> 4:20 remember that <i>all</i> Hebrew kings are called <i>messiahs</i>). However it was not until 13 months later, in the summer of Nebuchadnezzar's <b><i>nineteenth</i></b> year (586<font size="-1">BCE</font>), that the Babylonian commander, <i>Nabu</i>-<i>sharra</i>-<i>idd&acirc;nu</i> (&quot;Nebuzaradan&quot;) <i>returned</i> to <i>Y'rushalayim</i> and destroyed the Temple (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:8-9, <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:12-13). <i>Yirm'yahu</i> again adopts the Babylonian reckoning-system when he reports the number of <i>Y'hudah</i>ns who were deported on this occasion (52:29) and there he gives the date as Nebuchadnezzar's <b><i>eighteenth</i></b> year---in 52:12, he was using the Hebrew system (i.e. counting Nebuchadnezzar's &quot;accession year&quot; as his &quot;first&quot;), as in <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:8. Unfortunately, the Chronicle tablet that would have covered Nebuchadnezzar's 18th year has not so far been found, so at this time we do not have a Babylonian account of the final destruction of <i>Y'rushalayim</i> and the Temple.</p> <p><i>Y'hoyachin</i>, who was deported to Babylonia and imprisoned there by Nebuchadnezzar in 597<font size="-1">BCE</font>, spent 37 years in confinement; he was released under the general amnesty declared by Nebuchadnezzar's son <i>Amel</i>-<i>Mard&ucirc;k</i> (the Biblical &quot;<i>Evil-M'rodach</i>&quot;), to celebrate his succession to the Babylonian throne in 561<font size="-1">BCE</font> (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:27, <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:31). The Biblical narratives do not record how long <i>Y'hoyachin</i> lived, but it appears from <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:29-30 and <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:33-34 that he lived for a considerable number of years after being released from detention by <i>Amel</i>-<i>Mard&ucirc;k</i>: he was no more than 55 (and possibly only 45) years old when he was released, so he could conceivably have lived for as long as 30 or 40 years after that.</p> <p>It is also noteworthy that the <i>duration</i> of Nebuchadnezzar's reign according to the Biblical narrative also agrees with secular history: because <i>Y'hoyachin</i> was released from detention by <i>Amel</i>-<i>Marduk</i> (or <i>Evil-M'rodach</i>) &quot;in his accession year&quot; (i.e. in the latter part of the year in which Nebuchadnezzar died), which was also the 37th year of <i>Y'hoyachin</i>'s confinement (<i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:27, <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:31). But we have already seen that Nebuchadnezzar was in his 7th year when he deposed and arrested <i>Y'hoyachin</i>, which means that he had already been reigning for six years prior to that; he therefore reigned for a total of 6&nbsp;+&nbsp;37&nbsp;=&nbsp;43 years, exactly as Ptolemy's &quot;Canon&quot; says.</p> <p>The Biblical narratives give no indication of how long <i>Amel</i>-<i>Marduk</i> (<i>Evil-M'rodach</i>) reigned, and makes no mention at all of <i>Nergal</i>-<i>sharra</i>-<i>utzur</i> (Neriglissar), <i>Labashi</i>-<i>Marduk</i>, or <i>Nabu</i>-<i>na'id</i> (Nabonidus). Well---that isn't quite true: Neriglissar does show up in Zedekiah's 11th year (587<font size="-1">BCE</font>) as one of the officers (with the rank of <i>&quot;Rav-Mag&quot;</i>) who commanded the final assault on <i>Y'rushalayim</i> (<i>Yirm'yahu</i> 39:3), and later in the same chapter he crops up again as one of a group of officers in whose custody the prophet <i>Yirm'yahu</i> is placed (vv.11-13). This was some 29 years before Neriglissar murdered <i>Amel</i>-<i>Marduk</i> (<i>Evil-M'rodach</i>) and claimed the throne for himself, but it is hardly surprising that the king's son-in-law should have held a senior rank in the army.</p> <p>In any case---the Bible may not record how long <i>Amel</i>-<i>Marduk</i> (<i>Evil-M'rodach</i>) reigned, but this issue does come up in the Talmud (Treatise <i>M'gillah</i>, folio 11b), where it is reported as a &quot;tradition&quot; that he reigned for 23 years. That isn't right, though: Ptolemy only gives him <i>two</i> years, and this is backed up by Babylonian sources. But just look at this:</p> <table align="center" cols="4"> <tr><td><i>Evil-M'rodach</i></td><td align="center"><font color=WHITE>0</font>2 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">561-560<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>Neriglissar</td><td align="center"><font color=WHITE>0</font>4 years</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">559-556<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>Labashi-Marduk (a few months only)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">------</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">556<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>Nabonidus</td><td align="center"><u>17 years</u></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">556-539<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">23 years</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr> </table> <p>Now isn't <i>that</i> a coincidence! It isn't hard to see how the names of three totally <i>un</i>memorable and (from the Hebrew point of view) unimportant and irrelevant obscure Babylonian kings could be lost in an orally-transmitted tradition, all of them becoming merged into &quot;<i>Evil-M'rodach</i>&quot;, the only one who is mentioned in the Scriptures. This might also account for the book <i>Daniyyél</i> calling Nabonidus's son <i>Bel</i>-<i>sharra</i>-<i>utzur</i> (Belshazzar) &quot;the king&quot; (several times in chapter 5, and also in 7:1 and 8:1), even though he never actually <i>was</i> king of Babylonia.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><a name="persian"><b>(4) Ach&aelig;menid (Persian) history</b></a></p> <p>The kings of the dynasty founded by <i>K&ucirc;rush</i> (Cyrus) &quotThe Great&quot;, which ruled Persia from about 559<font size="-1">BCE</font> to 330<font size="-1">BCE</font>, are known as the Ach&aelig;menids, from <i>K&ucirc;rush</i>'s great-great-grandfather Hakhamanish (7th century <font size="-1">BCE</font>), who is called Ach&aelig;menes in Greek writings. There were ten Ach&aelig;menid kings...</p> <table align="center" cols="4"> <tr><td><i>K&ucirc;rush</i> (Cyrus) &quot;The Great&quot;</td><td align="center"><font color=WHITE>0</font>9 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">539-530<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Kambutziya</i> (Cambyses), son of Cyrus</td><td align="center"><font color=WHITE>0</font>8 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">529-522<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>D&acirc;rayavahu</i> (Darius) I, son of Hystaspes (a Persian noble)&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">36 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">521-486<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Khshay&acirc;rsh&acirc;</i> (Xerxes) I, son of Darius I</td><td align="center">21 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">486-465<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Artakhshathr&acirc;</i> (Artaxerxes) I, son of Xerxes I</td><td align="center">41 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">464-424<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>D&acirc;rayavahu</i> (Darius) II, illegitimate son of Artaxerxes I</td><td align="center">19 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">423-404<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Artakhshathr&acirc;</i> (Artaxerxes) II, son of Darius II</td><td align="center">46 years</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">404-359<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Vahauka</i> (Artaxerxes III), son of Artaxerxes II&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">21 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">359-338<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>Hawarsha</i>[?] (Arogos or Arses)</td><td align="center"><font color=WHITE>0</font>2 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">338-336<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> <tr><td><i>D&acirc;rayavahu</i> (Darius) III, great-grandson of Darius II</td><td align="center"><font color=WHITE>0</font>4 years</td><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;</td><td align="center">336-332<font size="-1">BCE</font></td></tr> </table> <p>Only three of the Ach&aelig;menid kings are of interest in the context of Biblical history: <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=ENC111526" target="_blank">Cyrus the Great</a>, his son <i>Kambutziya</i> (Cambyses), and <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ1683" target="_blank">Darius I</a>.</p> <p align="center"><img src="pictures/cyruscylinder.jpg" alt="Cyrus cylinder (BM90920)"></p> <p>Cyrus commemorated his capture of Nabonidus, the last Babylonian king, and his conquest of the Babylonian empire (539<font size="-1">BCE</font>) on this 9&quot;-long clay cylinder, part of the British Museum collection (see <a href="http://www.thebritishmuseum.ac.uk/compass/ixbin/goto?id=OBJ4931" target="_blank">BM90920</a>). After describing his victory and attributing his success to <a href="#null" title="Principal god of the city of Babylon. From about the 12th century BCE, Marduk was regarded as the king of all the gods. His symbol is a spade or hoe and he is associated with the mythical snake-dragon.">Marduk</a>, the god of Babylon, he goes on to describe the relief-measures he brought to the city's inhabitants, and tells how he arranged for the return of a number of images of gods, which Nabonidus and his predecessors had collected in Babylon, to their proper temples throughout Mesopotamia and western Persia. At the same time he made arrangements for the restoration of these various temples, and organized the return to their homelands of a number of groups of people who were being held captive in Babylonia by the Babylonian kings. Although the <i>Y'hudim</i> are not specifically mentioned in this document, their return to Israel after decades of exile following their deportation by Nebuchadnezzar II was part of this policy.</p> <p>According to the Biblical book <i>Ezra</i>-<i>N'h&#0803;emyah</i>, <table width="90%" align="center"> <tr><td>In the first year of <i>K&ucirc;rush</i>, king of Persia, in order to bring about the L<font size="-1">ORD</font>'s prophecy that <i>Yirm'yahu</i> had spoken, the L<font size="-1">ORD</font> motivated <i>K&ucirc;rush</i>, king of Persia, to issue a proclamation throughout his kingdom, and also to put it in writing, saying:<br> &quot;Thus says <i>K&ucirc;rush</i>, king of Persia, &#0145;The L<font size="-1">ORD</font>, God of the Heavens, has given to me all the kingdoms of the Earth, and He has commanded me to build a House for Him in <i>Y'rushalayim</i>, which is in <i>Y'hudah</i>. Therefore, whoever is among you of all His people---may his God be with him! let him go up to <i>Y'rushalayim</i>, which is in <i>Y'hudah</i>, and build the House for the L<font size="-1">ORD</font>, Israel's God---He is the God Who is in <i>Y'rushalayim</i>... and whoever remains from whatever place he has settled in---the people of that place shall help him with silver, gold, possessions and cattle---[they shall give] donations for the House of God, which is in <i>Y'rushalayim</i>.&#0146;&quot;<br> Then the family-heads of Judah and Benjamin, the Kohanim and the Levites arose, and all those whom God motivated to go up to build the L<font size="-1">ORD</font>'s House, which is in <i>Y'rushalayim</i>, and all those around them provided them with silver vessels, gold, possessions, cattle and precious things, besides everything that was donated.<br> King <i>K&ucirc;rush</i> also produced all the vessels from the L<font size="-1">ORD</font>'s House which Nebuchadnezzar had removed from <i>Y'rushalayim</i> and had placed in the temple of his [own] gods... <i>K&ucirc;rush</i>, the king of Persia, had his treasurer <i>Mitr'dat</i> bring them out, and he counted them out to <i>Shesh</i>-<i>batzar</i>, the prince of Judah. There were 30 gold basins, 1,000 silver basins, 29 knives, 30 gold bowls, 410 secondary silver bowls, and 1,000 other vessels: in all, 5,400 silver and gold vessels; <i>Shesh</i>-<i>batzar</i> brought all this up when the exiles returned from Babylon to <i>Y'rushalayim</i>. (<i>Ezra</i> 1:1-11; the first two verses and a small part of the third are reproduced word-for-word at the very end of the <i>Chronicle</i>)</td></tr> </table> </p> <p>Interestingly, in Cyrus's own document which has survived and is currently in the British Museum (see picture above), he gives the credit for his conquest of Babylon to the Babylonian god Marduk, whereas in the Biblical version he acknowledges Israel's God as having <i>&quot;given all all the kingdoms of the Earth to him&quot;</i>.</p> <p>More than 40,000 <i>Y'hudim</i>, plus more than 7,000 male and female bonded servants, led by Crown Prince <i>Z'rubavel ben Sh'altiyel</i> (&quot;Zerubbabel&quot;---a grandson of King <i>Y'hoyachin</i>), Chief <i>Kohén</i>-designate <i>Y&eacute;shua ben Y'hotzadak</i> (who was a grandson of <i>S'rayah</i>, the last Chief Priest who had served in <i>Sh'lomoh</i> s Temple---see <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 25:18, <i>Yirm'yahu</i> 52:24) and others (see <i>Ezra</i> 2:2), took advantage of Cyrus's amnesty to return to their ancestral homeland (<i>Ezra</i> 2:64-65), and after making the long journey (which took four months at that time, see <i>Ezra</i> 7:9), all of these dispersed back to their home towns (<i>Ezra</i> 2:70).</p> <p>A few weeks after all these Israelites had re-settled in their ancestral home-towns, <i>Rosh Hashanah</i> (the New Year festival) arrived and, according to <i>Ezra</i> 3:1, the people assembled &quot;as one man&quot; in <i>Y'rushalayim</i>. <i>Y&eacute;shua</i> and the other Kohanim had already rebuilt the Great Altar on the Temple site and they re-commenced the daily sacrificial services on <i>Tishri</i> 1st (i.e. on <i>Rosh Hashanah</i>)---even though they had not as yet even started to rebuild the Temple (<i>Ezra</i> 3:6). The foundations of the new building were laid in <i>Iyyar</i> (April-May) of the following year, i.e. 538<font size="-1">BCE</font> (3:8-10).</p> <p>The so-called &quot;Samaritans&quot;, who were descendants of the foreigners that the Assyrians had settled in the territories of the ten northern tribes after overthrowing the Northern Kingdom and deporting all its Israelite population in 721<font size="-1">BCE</font> (see <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 17:24-41), then approached <i>Z'rubavel</i>, <i>Y&eacute;shua</i> and the other <i>Y'hudi</i> leaders and pretended that they too wanted to participate in the rebuilding of the Temple, claiming that they had been sacrificing to <i>Yisraél</i> s God <i>&quot;ever since the time of Esarhaddon, king of Assyiria, who brought us here&quot;</i> (<i>Ezra</i> 4:1-2---that had been nearly 200 years earlier). The <i>Y'hudi</i> leaders refused, pointing out that Cyrus had specified that it was <i>the <i>Y'hudi</i> exiles</i> who were to return to <i>Y'hudah</i> and rebuild God's Temple---but the real reason was that these people had already shown themselves to be enemies of the <i>Y'hudim</i> (4:1) by intimidating the workers and interfering with the building work that was already in progress (4:4).</p> <p>These &quot;Samaritans&quot; didn't really want to help. They still bore a grudge about not having been accepted as part of Israel two centuries earlier on account of their refusal to abandon their own idols and serve God and God alone (see <i>M'lachim Beit</i> 17:33-34,40-41), and now they were also afraid that the returning Israelites would expel them from the lands they had settled in to regain all of <i>Eretz Yisrael</i> (echoes of this same kind of mentality can be seen even in our own time). It was because of this that they started trying to hinder the rebuilding of the Temple right from the very start and, when their attempt to join in the reconstruction (so they would be in a position to be even more obstructive) was frustrated, they started bribing the architects in charge of the project to impede the work, which continued throughout Cyrus's reign and that of his successor (Cambyses), right up to the reign of Darius I (<i>Ezra</i> 4:5). This doesn't seem to have been very effective as long as Cyrus was alive, so as soon as he had died and his son Cambyses was on the throne, they started sending letters to the king making (unspecified) accusations against the <i>Y'hudim</i> (4:6---the text calls Cambyses &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot;).</p> <p>That didn't work either so, when Darius I came to power in Cambyses's place in 521<font size="-1">BCE</font>, they tried a different tactic (<i>Ezra</i> 4:7---the writer refers to Darius as &quot;<i>Artah&#0803;'shasta</i>&quot;, equivalent to <i>Artakh'shathra</i>, a title commonly used by the Ach&aelig;menid kings). The text of this letter is reproduced in full in verses 11-16 and is followed by Darius's reply ordering the immediate cessation of the rebuilding work (verses 18-22). The conspirators thereupon rushed back to <i>Y'rushalayim</i> and stopped the work by force (v.23).</p> <p>The work of rebuilding remained at a standstill until the following year, which was Darius's 2nd (v.24---here, Darius is called by his actual name), i.e. 520<font size="-1">BCE</font>, when two of Darius's officials, accompanied by troops, arrived and demanded to know who had authorised the reconstruction works that had previously been taking place (<i>Ezra</i> 5:3). These officials then sent a letter to the king informing him that the <i>Y'hudim</i> were claiming that Cyrus had given permission for the Temple to be rebuilt, and asking the king to search the royal archives to see if this was true. Darius did so, and found that it indeed was the case, so he commanded that the <i>Y'hudim</i> be allowed to resume and complete the work (6:1-8), that his officials should assist in whatever manner was needed, and provide suitable animals to be sacrificed on Darius's own behalf (6:9-10), with dire consequences to anyone disobeying the king's command (6:11-12).</p> <p>After that, the building work proceeded without any further interruption, and the new building was completed on <i>Adar</i> 3rd in Darius's 6th year (<i>Ezra</i> 6:15), i.e. 516<font size="-1">BCE</font>---exactly 70 years after Solomon's Temple was destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar (in 586<font size="-1">BCE</font>), just as the prophet <i>Yirm'yah</i> had predicted in his famous prophecy (which is discussed in greater depth in <a href="#addendum-daniel">Addendum 2</a> below). The new Temple was dedicated with great jubilation (6:16-18), and six weeks later they celebrated <i>Pesah&#0803;</i> (6:19-22).</p> <p>In the summer of the following year (more specifically, on <i>Av</i> 1st of Darius's 7th year, i.e. 515<font size="-1">BCE</font>---<i>Ezra</i> 7:8-9), &quot;a brilliant scholar of <i>Mosheh</i>'s <i>Torah</i>&quot; (7:6) arrived in <i>Y'rushalayim</i>: <i>Y&eacute;shua</i>'s uncle, <i>Ezra</i> son of <i>S'rayah</i> (7:1). It is not clear why he had chosen to remain in exile until after the Temple reconstruction had been completed. Ezra brought with him a letter from Darius authorising him, and any other <i>Y'hudim</i> who wanted to accompany him, to travel to <i>Y'hudah</i>, to collect donations in Babylonia for the Temple funds, promising that Darius would himself contribute, and requiring <i>Ezra</i> to teach and to enforce the law of the <i>Torah</i> and also Persian law in <i>Y'hudah</i>, and to impose the appropriate punishments on offenders, &quot;whether it be execution, deportation, fine or imprisonment&quot; (7:12-26). <i>Ezra</i> immediately set about this task, but his book ends abruptly after just three more chapters and we hear no more about him.</p> <p>The book <i>N'h&#0803;emyah</i> resumes the historical narrative 13 years later, in 502<font size="-1">BCE</font>, Darius I's 20th year (<i>N'h&#0803;emyah</i> 1:1, 2:1---this writer also calls Darius &quot;<i>Artah&#0803;'shasta</i>&quot;). There is no other information of historical interest in this book other than the detail that this &quot;<i>Artah&#0803;'shasta</i>&quot; reigned for at least 32 years (<i>N'h&#0803;emyah</i> 5:14, 13:6)---Darius I actually reigned for 36 years (521-486<font size="-1">BCE</font>).</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><a name="#addendum-ester"><br><b>Addendum 1: Who was &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; in the book of Esther?</b></a></p> <p>Who is the king called &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; in the book of Esther? Is the book even historical? My personal opinion is that it is not: many scholars have taken the view that &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; is an attempt to transliterate the Persian name <i>Kh'shayarsha</i> (Xerxes) into Hebrew letters, and that Xerxes I is meant; but Xerxes I is not known to have had either a queen called <i>Vashti</i> or a Jud&aelig;an queen called <i>Ester</i> (or <i>Hadassah</i>), or chamberlains named <i>M'human</i>, <i>Biz'ta</i>, <i>H&#0803;arvonah</i> etc. (Est. 1:10), or advisers called <i>Karsh'na</i>, <i>Sh&eacute;tar</i>, <i>Tar'shish</i> etc. (Est. 1:14), or a Viceroy by the name of <i>Haman</i>, or one called <i>Mordochai</i>---and neither is any of the other Ach&aelig;menid kings, for that matter.</p> <p><i>Mordochai</i> was certainly an historical person: his full name was <i>Mordochai Bil'shan</i> (i.e. <i>Mordochai</i> &quot;the Linguist&quot;) and he is listed among the Jud&aelig;an elders who, together with Crown Prince <i>Z'rubavel</i> and Chief <i>Kohen</i>-designate <i>Y'hoshua ben Y'hotzadak</i> (who was nicknamed <i>Y&eacute;shua</i>), led the returning exiles in 539<font size="-1">BCE</font> (see <i>Ezra</i> 2:2, and also <i>N'h&#0803;emyah</i> 7:7). And therein lies the problem: if he returned to Jud&aelig;a right at the beginning of Cyrus's reign, how could he have been around in the reign of &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot;, whoever he was? But even if Esther <i>is</i> just a literary legend which features a famous and prominent character from Hebrew history, the question remains---is &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; supposed to be an actual king, or is he purely fictitious?</p> <p>The identification of the <i>Mordochai</i> character in the Esther story with the <b>historical</b> <i>Mordochai</i> who features in <i>Ezra</i>-<i>N'h&#0803;emyah</i> is reinforced by a midrashic legend reported in the Talmud (Treatise <i>M'gillah</i>, folio 13b) that he &quot;knew all the 70 languages&quot;---hence his &quot;surname&quot; <i>Bil'shan</i> (&quot;the Linguist&quot;) in <i>Ezra</i> 2:2 and <i>N'h&#0803;emyah</i> 7:7---which is linked with the statement in Est. 2:22 that the &quot;matter [of <i>Bigtan</i> and <i>Teresh</i>'s conspiracy] 'became known' to <i>Mordochai</i>&quot;, the implication being that he overheard the two of them discussing it in their own language which he, unknown to them, was able to understand.</p> <p>I noted above that Cyrus's son Cambyses is called by the name &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; in <i>Ezra</i> 4:6. Could the &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; in the book of Esther also be Cambyses? On the face of it, no---because Cambyses only reigned for 8 years (530-522<font size="-1">BCE</font>), and the king who is called &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; in Esther reigns for at least 12 years (Est. 3:7).</p> <p>But let's look into this a little more deeply. It is known that a revolt against Cambyses broke out in 522<font size="-1">BCE</font>, and Cambyses was on his way to deal with it when he was accidentally killed. Could the author of &quot;Esther&quot; be suggesting that the revolt was triggered by the Jud&aelig;ans being allowed to kill 75,000 Persians on one day (Est. 9:16)? If such is the case, the (fictitious) &quot;King <i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; in the story would have reigned for twelve years and no more; and, although Cyrus <i>actually</i> reigned for nine years, in Hebrew tradition (Talmud, Treatise <i>M'gillah</i>, folio 11b) he is said to have reigned for only five (in fact, the Talmudic text reads &quot;<b><i>Darius and</i></b> Cyrus&quot;, but this has to be an error in redaction). In other words, <b><i>in the Hebrew tradition</i></b>, Cyrus and &quot;<i>Ah&#0803;ashv&eacute;rosh</i>&quot; <u><b>together</b></u> reigned for a total of 17 years---which, by a strange coincidence, just <i>happens</i> to be exactly the combined duration of the <u><b>actual</b></u> reigns of Cyrus (9 years) and his son Cambyses (8 years) according to secular history.</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p><a name="#addendum-daniel"><br><b>Addendum 2: The problems raised by the book of Daniel</b></a></p> <p>Who was Daniel? At the beginning of his book we read</p> <table width="90%" align="center"> <tr><td>The king said to <i>Ashp'naz</i>, his chief officer, to select from the Israelites---from the royal family and from the <i>part'mim</i> [&quot;nobles&quot;]---a group of flawless young men, good-looking and well-educated, skilled in science and articulate, and strong enough to stand [and serve] in the king's palace---and to teach them the Chald&aelig;an script and language. (<i>Daniyel</i> 1:3-4)</td></tr> </table></p> <p>According to <i>Daniyel</i> 1:6-7, among the group chosen were Daniel himself and his three friends <i>H&#0803;ananyah</i>, <i>Misha'el</i> and <i>Azar'yah</i>---who were promptly given Persian names (<i>Bel</i>-<i>t'sha'tzar</i>, <i>Shad</i>-<i>rach</i>, <i>Meishach</i> &amp; <i>Av&eacute;d</i>-<i>n'go</i>) by <i>Ashp'naz</i>. It is also stated that <i>&quot;Daniel was [there] until the first year of King Cyrus&quot;</i> (<i>Daniyel</i> 1:21), and that <i>&quot;this Daniel prospered during the reign of Darius as he had in the reign of Cyrus the Persian&quot;</i> (<i>Daniyel</i> 6:29). This places Daniel during the Babylonian exile period, between 586<font size="-1">BCE</font> and at least 520<font size="-1">BCE</font>, and the dating is reinforced by the prophet <i>Y'h&#0803;ezkel</i> (&quot;Ezekiel&quot;) who also lived during the Babylonian exile period and who mentions Daniel three times (<i>Y'h&#0803;ezkél</i> 14:14,20 &amp; 28:3) as one of Israel's men of legendary wisdom.</p> <p>So Daniel himself, assuming he was a real historical person, is supposed to have lived in in the early part of the 6th century <font size="-1">BCE</font>. It is not, however, clear by any means that he actually existed: he is not mentioned anywhere else in the Bible apart from the three references in Ezekiel, two of which (<i>Y'h&#0803;ezkél</i> 14:14,20) associate him with the mythological <i>Iyyov</i> (&quot;Job&quot;), and there are a number of anomalies in the <i>book</i> of Daniel that suggest it is a much later, and very possibly mythological, composition.</p> <p>First of all, there are several oddities of language. There is nothing surprising about him using the Persian word <font size="+2">ä¼·è°ê¼°Þ´ÙÝ</font> <i>part'mim</i>, &quot;nobles&quot; (a word that is only found here and twice in Esther, which is also set during the exile period but after Babylonia had fallen to the Persian king Cyrus) in <i>Daniyel</i> 1:3, but Daniel also uses <i>Greek</i> words---notably <font size="+2">ç·ê°è¹á</font> <i>katros</i>, <font size="+2">ä°á·à°ê¼µè´Ùß</font> <i>psan't&eacute;rin</i> and <font size="+2">áÕ¼Þ°ä¼¹à°Ù¸Ô</font> <i>sumponyah</i> (which all occur in <i>Daniyel</i> 3:5, 3:7, 3:10 and 3:15 apart from <i>sumponyah</i>, which is missing from 3:7)...</p> <ul> <li><font size="+2">ç·ê°è¹á</font> <i>katros</i> (but always spelt <font size="+2">ç´Ùê°è¹á</font> <i>kitros</i>) is a transliteration of &kappa;&iota;&theta;&alpha;&rho;&alpha; <i>kithara</i>, a guitar;</li> <li><font size="+2">ä°á·à°ê¼µè´Ùß</font> <i>psan't&eacute;rin</i> is a transliteration of &psi;&alpha;&lambda;&tau;&eta;&rho;&iota;&omicron;&nu; <i>psalterion</i>, a stringed instrument that was plucked with fingers or a plectrum (from the verb &psi;&alpha;&lambda;&lambda;&omega; <i>psallo</i>, to pluck); and</li> <li><font size="+2">áÕ¼Þ°ä¼¹à°Ù¸Ô</font> <i>sumponyah</i> is a combination of the two Greek words &sigma;&upsilon;&mu; <i>sum</i> (or <i>sym</i>), together, and &phi;&omega;&nu;&omicron;&sigmaf; <i>phonos</i>, sound: i.e. some kind of musical instrument capable of producing several different notes simultaneously---the English word <i>symphony</i> has exactly the same etymology.</li> </ul> <p>It is most unlikely that anyone in the Babylonian empire had any contact with Greeks as early as the time of Nebuchadnezzar, and the presence of Greek words in a Babylonian royal proclamation (and it is clear from the repetetive and legalistic language used that the text of the actual proclamation is allegedly being quoted) raises serious doubts about its authenticity.</p> <p>It is also noteworthy that the language in which the book is written changes twice. It begins in Hebrew, but switches abruptly into Aramaic part-way through verse 2:4 (the parts in <font color=BLUE>blue</font> are in Hebrew and those in <font color=RED>red</font> are in Aramaic):<br> <table align="center" width="90%" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" cols="1"> <tr><td align="right"><font size="+2"><font color=RED>...</font><font color=BLUE>շٰӷѼ°èÕ¼ Ô·Û¼·é°Ӽ´ÙÝ Ü·Þ¼¶Ü¶Ú° вè¸Þ´Ùê: </font><font color=RED>Þ·Ü°Û¼¸Ð, Ü°â¸Ü°Þ´Ùß ×±Ù´Ù! б޷è ׶ܰ޸Рܰâ·Ñ°Ó¸Ú° Õ¼ä´éÁ°è¸Ð à°×·Õ¼µÐ</font></font></td></tr> <tr><td align="right"><i><font color=BLUE>vay'dabbru hakasdim lamelech aramit: </font><font color=RED>mal'ka, l'al'min h&#0803;eyi! emar h&#0803;el'ma l'av'dach ufish'ra n'h&#0803;avv&eacute;...</font></i></td></tr> <tr><td align="left"><font color=BLUE>Then the Chald&aelig;ans replied to the king in Aramaic: </font><font color=RED>&quot;Your Majesty, may you live for ever! Tell your servants the dream and we will reveal its explanation...&quot;</font></td></tr> </table> After this, the text remains in Aramaic until the end of chapter 7, and reverts to Hebrew at the beginning of chapter 8.</p> <p>Secondly, there are historical issues. Daniel tells a somewhat far-fetched story in 4:28-37 about how Nebuchadnezzar lost his sanity and was driven from his kingdom, living like a wild animal for seven years until he submitted to God's sovereignty. Nothing like this is known to have actually occurred, although it was well-known in Hebrew folklore that it was supposed to happen, as <i>Y'shayahu</i> had very sarcastically prophesied in a long tirade against &quot;the king of Babylonia&quot that can be found in <i>Y'shayahu</i> 14:4-23---</p> <table width="90%" align="center"> <tr><td>Oh, how you have fallen from the heights [of your former splendour], Venus, the &quot;Morning Star&quot;! How you have been cut down to the ground, you &quot;Conqueror of Nations&quot;! You said to yourself, &quot;I will ascend into Heaven, I will set my throne even higher than God's stars---I will sit at the extreme northern end of the Temple Mountain [<i>the holiest part of the Temple courtyard where the most holy sacrifices were slaughtered, compare <i>Vayikra</i> 1:11</i>]---I will rise above the highest clouds, I will become like the Most High!&quot; But instead you have been brought down to the nether world, to the depths of despair... (<i>Y'shayahu</i> 14:12-15)</td></tr> </table> <p>The historical problems continue throughout the book: Nabonidus's son <i>Bel</i>-<i>sharra</i>-<i>utzur</i> (Belshazzar) was never king of Babylonia (see the section on Babylonian history above), and yet Daniel calls him &quot;king&quot; several times in chapter 5, and also in 7:1 and 8:1---historically, <i>Bel</i>-<i>sharra</i>-<i>utzur</i> only acted as regent in his father Nabonidus's place while the latter was absent from Babylon (which in fact was the majority of his reign), and Nabonidus was overthrown by the Persian king Cyrus before his son could ever reign as king, while Daniel says that when &quot;Belshazzar&quot; was killed the throne passed to &quot;Darius the Mede&quot; (5:30-6:1). The first Darius didn't in fact come to power until after the reigns of Cyrus (9 years) and his son Cambyses (8 years), and he wasn't a &quot;Mede&quot; either.</p> <p>Then there is chapter 9, to which I have devoted a page all to itself - see <a href="http://mordochai.tripod.com/daniyyel9.html" target="_blank">The 9th chapter of <i>Daniyel</i></a>.</p> <p>All things considered, I tend to concur with the opinion of the majority of modern scholars, who generally agree that &quot;Daniel&quot; is an anonymous composition dating from the 2nd century <font size="-1">BCE</font>. The unknown writer tries to discourage anyone from trying to understand the seemingly very precise predictions that he makes about the time that is to elapse before the &quot;End&quot;---in 12:4, the eponymous &quot;Daniel&quot; is instructed specifically to &quot;encrypt&quot; the book (i.e. write it in coded language) and &quot;seal it up until the time of the End&quot; so that &quot;many will research [it] and thereby knowledge will increase&quot;.</p> <p>Despite the influence of Mesopotamian and Persian mythology which is apparent in the imagery of Daniel's visions in chapters 7-12, the book certainly appears to be Hebraic in origin and his &quot;prophecies&quot; of the destruction of the Second Temple are consistent with the orally-transmitted &quot;traditional&quot; chronology preserved in the Talmud and <i>Midrashim</i> such as <i>S&eacute;der Olam</i>, which has only 490 years (instead of the roughly 655 years there actually were) between the destruction of Solomon's Temple by Nebuchadnezzar and the destruction of the Second Temple by Titus (i.e. <i>&quot;seventy weeks of years... to expunge transgression, to atone for sin and to expiate iniquity&quot;</i>, <i>Daniyel</i> 9:24)---traditionally broken down into 70 years of exile, 34 years of Persian rule, 180 years of Greek rule, 103 years of independence under the Hasmon&aelig;ans (or &quot;Maccabees&quot;) and 103 years under Herod's dynasty (Treatise <i>M'gillah</i>, folio 11b).</p> <p>Strictly speaking, Daniel is not a &quot;prophet&quot;: his book is one of the <i>K'tuvim</i> rather than the <i>N'viyim</i> (see <a href="http://mordochai.tripod.com/tanach.html" target="_blank"><i>The 24 Books of the Hebrew Scriptures</i></a>); he is never referred to as &quot;Daniel the Prophet&quot;; and he never uses language such as '<font size="+2">Û¼¹Ô и޷è Ô</font> <i>koh amar adonai</i> (&quot;So says the L<font size="-1">ORD</font>&quot;), '<font size="+2">à°Ð»Ý Ô</font> <i>n'um adonai</i> (&quot;the L<font size="-1">ORD</font> declares&quot;) or '<font size="+2">Ô¸Ù°ê¸Ô â¸Ü·Ù Ù·Ó Ô</font> <i>hay'tah alai yad adonai</i> (&quot;the L<font size="-1">ORD</font>'s power came over me&quot;), like the Prophets used---neither does he ever speak directly in God's Name. Finally, and most telling of all, nowhere in his Book do we find a single exhortation to repentance, which is the true Hebrew definition of a "prophet" (rather than just a person who makes predictions of the future).</p> <p>Nonetheless, &quot;Daniel&quot; does display some of the characteristics that are associated with being a &quot;prophet&quot;: in the first half of the book, he successfully &quot;interprets&quot; Nebuchadnezzar's dreams on at least two separate occasions (ch.2 and ch.4---in the former case without even being told in advance what the dream was about); he deciphers and explains the strange writing that is inscribed in the plaster of the palace wall during a great banquet hosted by Crown Prince Belshazzar (ch.5); and he is protected by God when he is thrown into a pit of lions for defying an edict of Darius I prohibiting the offering of prayers to any god for a period of 30 days (ch.6). In the second half of the book, he documents three dreams each of which is explained to him by an &quot;angel&quot; (chapters 7, 8 and <a href="http://mordochai.tripod.com/daniel9.html" target="_blank">9</a>), and also one long apocalyptic vision (chapters 10-12).</p> <p>&nbsp;</p> <p align="center"><a href="#top"><i>Back to top</i></a></p> <p><hr><font size="2"><i>All the material on this page is entirely original.</p></font> <p align="center"><i><b><font color=RED>Any advertisements appearing below this line are inserted by &quot;tripod&quot;, please IGNORE them</font></b></i></p> </font> </body> </html>